Colonial India Research Articles

‘Not regular thieves’: shades of Bhil engagement with company criminal justice (c. 1818–1825)

Considerable scholarship exists about the British colonial ideas of the murderous highway-robbing cult of ‘thuggee’, and the legislation passed in 1871 to curb the activities of ‘criminal tribes’ in colonial India. However, limiting research to these two themes of thuggee and criminal tribes alone occludes the informed, savvy and diverse ways that Indigenous communities like Bhils engaged with British justice prior to this time, under the East India Company. Using the under-researched unpublished archives of the Company’s Bombay Judicial Consultations between 1818 and 1825 as a sample, this article provides a survey of the dynamic, engaged and sometimes calculated ways that Bhils interacted with the Company’s system of justice. It contends that when it came to law, crime and culture, there were not black or white responses, but rather ‘shades’ of Bhil’s engagement with Company justice. This engagement was not simply a reactive measure for Bhils to adapt to Company rule. Bhils drew on longer lineages of political and legal practices which predated the Company in how they engaged with the British.

Colonial Sense and Religious Sensibility: Understanding Injury and the Body of Nation in Censored Literature in South Asia

ABSTRACT This essay critically examines Angarey, a collection of nine short stories and one play by Sajjad Zaheer, Rashid Jahan, Ahmed Ali, and Mahmuduzzafar, first published in December 1932. Considered a foundational work in Urdu literature which supported the Progressive Writer’s Association in South Asia during the pre-partition era and hailed as an act of literary resistance – especially in the context of the nationalist movements for freedom in India – the stories offer a succinct critique of social and religious practices. Because they exposed the oppression against Muslim women and promoted resistance against the colonial state, the text was banned in March 1933 by the British government. The historical account of its censorship characterizes the British colonial state as the rational and neutral arbiter of its presumed emotionally excitable colonial subjects. In observance of the relationship between affective politics of colonial empire and religion in late colonial India, I critically examine not just the text but also the contextual background of its censorship to explore the link between the colonial ideas about Muslim sensibilities and colonial regulations. In this respect, relying on Asad Ali Ahmed’s critique of the colonial genesis of censorship [“Specters of Macaulay: Blasphemy, The Indian Penal Code, and Pakistan’s Postcolonial Predicament.” In Censorship in South Asia: Cultural Regulation from Sedition to Seduction, edited by Raminder Kaur, and William Mazzarella, 172–205. Bloomington, 2009], Talal Asad’s insights on the complicated relation between injury and the discourse of blasphemy [Asad, Talal. “Free Speech, Blasphemy, and Secular Criticism.” In Is Critique Secular? Blasphemy, Injury and Free Speech. New York: Fordham University Press, 2013, and Ann Laura Stoler’s argument about the Enlightenment’s relationship to empire “Reason Aside: Reflections on Enlightenment and Empire.” In The Oxford Handbook of Postcolonial Studies. Oxford University Press, 2013], this study attempts to understand how the embodied representation of the Muslim self figures in Angarey as an affective attachment, following the context of literary censorship in late colonial South Asia.

Boycott of Foreign Goods in Premchand’s Stories

This article showcases that studies on Hindi and Urdu literature are also being conducted outside South Asia and that elsewhere, too, such literary studies and socio-political analyses are being combined in quite specific ways. Boycott of foreign goods was one of the most important parts of colonial India’s freedom struggle and many intellectuals from the literary and art worlds expressed their views on it. In his Hindi and Urdu stories, Munshi Premchand used his unique narrative technique, critical perspective on social events, and deep understanding of Indian society also to comment on the boycott of foreign goods. The article examines how such reflections of India’s struggle for independence manifest in two of Premchand’s lesser-known stories in which he argued for boycotting foreign goods. Our analysis portrays Premchand as an activist writer, who chose common people’s language to present gendered social documents, in a form akin to oral history, as his specific contribution to India’s freedom from foreign rule.

Book review: Ipshita Nath, Memsahibs: British Women in Colonial India

Ipshita Nath, Memsahibs: British Women in Colonial India. Harper Collins, 2022, 325 pages, ₹699 (Hardbound). ISBN: 978-93-5629-008-2.

Costumes of the migrating body: A study of indentured labors’ clothes and jewelry

The years 1838–1924 in colonial India saw the first organized exodus of around 1.5 million. These emigrants were employed as indentured laborers in the various plantations owned by the Empire. Along with the people, what migrated were objects like clothes and jewelry. While some of these items were provided by the plantation regimes, others were brought by the emigrants. Though there have been studies about the lives on the plantations, the marine lives of the travelers and their personal belongings have been neglected. Objects such as clothes and jewelry not only have cultural significance but also form part of the emigrants’ memory. This article critically analyses the usage of cultural artifacts as “floating signifiers” and how these artifacts are altered with a change of setting. Building on the ideas of Bhabha, Skinner, and others, this article aims to understand the role of material possessions in the lives of the plantation workers. The narratives discussed allow readers to witness changes in the role of materials like clothes and jewelry accompanying the emigrants on their voyage to the plantations.

Arguing Pakistan in Late Colonial India: The Political Thought of Shabbir Ahmad Usmani

Arguing Pakistan in Late Colonial India: The Political Thought of Shabbir Ahmad Usmani

Recovering the Dalit Public Sphere: Vernacular Liberalism in Late Colonial North India

Abstract Drawing from publications by Swami Achutanand and the Adi-Hindu Mahasabha press between 1916 and 1940, this article examines the role of this north Indian Dalit organization in creating language and categories of liberalism in the Hindi vernacular. The Mahasabha poet-activists published numerous song-booklets in a variety of Hindi song genres to intervene in ongoing discussions on the subjects of representation and equality which they characterized as mulki-haq and unch-niche. Histories of liberties in late colonial India have typically examined its emergence within dominant Hindu and Muslim middle-class groups. This article uncovers the unique contributions of Dalit poet-activists who recognized the value of liberal ideas and institutions in challenging caste and abolishing “Manu’s Kanun” (lawgiver Manu’s Hindu law codes). It highlights the methodological importance of mohalla (neighborhood) sources usually located in Dalit activists’ houses in untouchable quarters. The chapbooks found in mohalla collections have enabled the writing of a new history of the Mahasabha’s activism and of the initiatives taken by poet-activists in founding a new Dalit politics in northern India. I explore the emergence of a Dalit literate public which sustained the activities of the Mahasabha and which responded with enthusiasm to its articulation of the new social identity of Achut (untouched) and a new political identity of Adi-Hindus—original inhabitants of Hindustan (India). Offering a new methodological approach in using mohalla sources and song-booklets composed in praise of liberal institutions, this essay makes a significant contribution to the recovery of a forgotten Dalit public sphere in early twentieth-century India.

East Bengal-Mohun Bagan football fans and Indian politics: parochialism and nationalism in simultaneity?

ABSTRACT The footballing rivalry between East Bengal and Mohun Bagan in Kolkata, India, explicates important facets of the politics of nation-building and identity formation through sport. The sporting nationalism of the colonial era gave way to narrow parochialism in post-independent India where the cultural differences of Bangals (original Hindu residents of East Bengal in colonial India and Hindu migrants from East Bengal/East Pakistan in postcolonial India) and Ghotis (original residents of western parts of Bengal in colonial India and of West Bengal in postcolonial India) emerged as the key linchpin of expressing allegiance to their respective club football teams particularly in the aftermath of immigration of refugees which took place as a result of the partition of 1947 and the 1971 Bangladesh liberation war. However, the legislations pertaining to Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 and National Register of Citizens (NRC) have propelled fans of these clubs to forego their sub-cultural differences and act in unison to express their grievances against the new regulations of the Indian state. The anti-NRC protest by the fans hinges on the link between football and the debates pertaining to the idea of citizenship in contemporary Indian politics. The displaying of Tifos by the fans that exhibited significant social messages bears semblance with the Ultras of European football.

Forgotten Voices of the British Empire: How Knowledge Was Created and Curated in Colonial India and Burma

Forgotten Voices of the British Empire: How Knowledge Was Created and Curated in Colonial India and Burma

The Bezbaroa Household of Colonial Calcutta: Microcosm of Changing Family Dynamics

Against the backdrop of colonial India, this study examines the Bezbaroa family, specifically focusing on the marriage of Lakshminath Bezbaroa, a prominent Assamese writer, to Prajnasundari Devi of the renowned Tagore family of Bengal. Their seemingly disparate backgrounds offer a unique vantage point to explore the complex interplay between tradition and modernity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Delving into aspects like gender roles, domesticity, education, personal choice, and individual expression, the paper aims to illuminate a broader understanding of how the public–private divide might have been reshaped within the context of a colonially influenced Indian society.

Hate speech vis-a-vis Freedom of speech in Indian democracy

The paper gives a broad study on hate speech, its evolution, legal consequences as well as freedom of speech in a democratic state. One is the Evolution of Hate Speech discussed in chapter one which goes from looking at the different aspects of hate speech to its roots during colonial India. Legal cases such as Pravasi Bhalai Sangathan v Union of India, enable readers to comprehend what amounts to hate speech and how it affects marginalized groups. This chapter highlights the change and restrictions laid down by the constitution with regard to hate speech as an exception to free expression. Potential Harm and Impact on Individuals and Communities looks at some of the long term effects of hate crimes. From personal damages such as psychological traumas and costs; community-wide issues like economic setbacks, school dropout rates due to fear or tension; this section explores them all in details. It also recognizes that communities can be resilient while highlighting the importance of recognizing nuanced impact. Legal framework in India, as explained in Chapter three analyzes constitutional provisions particularly Article 19(1)(a) and ancillary legislations like Sections 153A, 153B & 295A of Indian Penal Code (IPC). Additionally, it examines Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 for its efficacy. It affects people psychologically and communities economically and socially, from individual trauma to community difficulties. The chapter acknowledges community strength while stressing the need to understand hate speech's harm to protect people's rights and safety.

The gold-exchange standard in colonial India: foreshadowing the monetary hierarchy of the international state-credit standard

This paper investigates how the concrete operation of the gold-exchange standard in colonial India imposed a process of financial subordination embedding colonial India in the currency hierarchy of British sterling. This system was instrumental in entrenching a core-periphery asymmetry that undergirded Britain’s financial supremacy, providing elasticity to the sterling funding mechanisms of international money-markets by mobilizing the reserves of colonial India through the council bill mechanism and the placement of reserves in London. Its workings foreshadow the role of reserve accumulation in the financial subordination of developing countries in the context of the dollar hegemony in an international monetary hierarchy delinked from gold and enforced without colonial rule.

The Holistic Effects of Mystical Union with Christ in the Soteriology of Dhanjibhai Fakirbhai

Abstract This article addresses the relationship between eschatological and present issues in Christian soteriological debates of the mid-twentieth century, particularly in post- colonial India. It focuses on the writings of Dhanjibhai Fakirbhai. As mystical views of Christian salvation can be criticized for their irrelevancy to secular society, Dhanjibhai presents a contrast to this in a type of mystical soteriology that breaks such critiques and complicates the usual categories of South Asian understandings. According to Dhanjibhai, “salvation” means to be in union with Jesus Christ, a spiritual faith-based relationship that extends into eternity but is also practically experienced in the world today. This article proceeds according to four key features of Dhanjibhai’s writings that demonstrate the holistic effects of union with Christ in his soteriology. I argue that Dhanjibhai alleviates the perceived problems of mystical approaches by presenting a soteriology that envelopes personal, social, and even ecological ramifications of salvation within a contextual evangelical framework.

Hansen’s discovery of the Leprosy Bacillus: controversy over preventive measures in 19th Century British Colonial India

Hansen’s discovery of the Leprosy Bacillus: controversy over preventive measures in 19th Century British Colonial India

The Rise of Communal Politics: Representing “Peasants” in Non‐electoral and Electoral Politics, Bengal 1920–1930s

AbstractThis article explores the representation of peasants in colonial India, during the 1920s‐1930s undivided Bengal. It examines how the historically marginalized and underrepresented rural population came to be constructed as objects of representation. It traces the development of representative claims made by various political parties and groups, both within and outside formal institutions of power, on behalf of rural society. The article discusses the challenges of categorizing the diverse rural population using the term "peasant" as an analytical category in the context of colonial Bengal. It highlights the dominance of the urban intelligentsia in provincial politics until the 1920s‐1930s, which neglected rural issues. It then explores the emergence of different claims to represent peasants in electoral politics, with a particular focus on the political debates surrounding the Tenancy Reform in Bengal. Drawing on secondary sources and colonial archives, it raises questions about how substantive representation of peasants occurred, who championed their representation, and how they formulated their demands. Overall, the article sheds light on the complex dynamics of peasant representation. By examining the rise communal peasant politics in 1920‐1930s Bengal, it contributes to a deeper understanding of the complexities of rural mobilization and the interplay between class and communal identities.

Literary Associations and Language Activism: Reading the Past and Present Motivations of Asam Sahitya Sabha

In the early decades of the twentieth century in colonial Assam, the standardisation of language, the expansion of regional literature and literary circles, and the challenges arising for linguistic communities led to the formation of Asam Sahitya Sabha (ASS) that intended to work for the advancement of Assamese language in the interest of the public. Implicit in its model of association was the notion of collective identity that gradually set the pace for assertions. The ASS’s motivations cannot be discussed in isolation. The historical junctures of colonial India must be taken into account that had set the stage for revolutionising the literary spaces. This article has two key aims, first to discuss the events of ASS’s activism during the colonial and post-independence periods and observe the relevant transitions. Second, to look at the mobilisation agendas pursued by the ASS in contemporary times and whether there are alternative inspirations. To place the key issues of the present, the insights from ASS members, who were interviewed, are included. Overall, this article looks at the associational form of the language assertion in Assam, years earlier and the roles adopted with the changing times.

A British Military Engineer, the Ganga and the Spectre of Control in Colonial Northern India (1839–1854)

Much has been written about environmental and agrarian history in South Asia. These documented histories provide a fascinating overview of structural changes brought about through infrastructural development and modes of colonial governance. However, specific and advanced forms of intervention were introduced in the nineteenth century, which was defined by the accelerated scale of exploitation of the environment. This article offers an account of the Ganga Canal, constructed in mid-nineteenth century colonial India, under British engineer Proby Cautley, by drawing water from the river Ganga. The paper revisits his motivations and challenges and the scope of his plan to make two arguments. First, it argues that the engineering model of Cautley reflects his deeper entanglement with the ideals of colonial modernity, such as controlling the natural world. Second, the colossal scale of hydrological experimentation through the processes of canal construction, in turn, transformed the imagination of the river into an object.

Communal Geographies and Peasant Insurgency in Colonial Myanmar

This article makes two arguments, one theoretical and the other empirical. The first is that Ranajit Guha’s classic text, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, contains generative but overlooked spatial concepts for uncovering communal geographies. The second is that the Hsaya San peasant rebellion, which rocked British authority in Myanmar from late 1930 until 1932, fostered a new communal geography. These two arguments come together through my elaboration and utilisation of Guha’s ideas to interpret rebel violence against Chin villages.

Śrīkhṛṣṭa-saṃgītā : William Hodge Mill’s Sanskrit Christian Purāṇa

In the wake of Christian missionaries’ arrival in India, a profound engagement with Sanskrit ensued, resulting in the emergence of ‘Church Sanskrit’ Literature. This genre not only witnessed translations of sacred texts like the Bible but also spawned original compositions centered on Jesus Christ, serving as a vehicle for propagating the Christian faith among the Sanskrit-knowing intelligentsia. Notably, figures like William Hodge Mill played a pivotal role, crafting monumental works such as the Śrīkhṛṣṭa-saṃgītā, which garnered acclaim for its literary and scholarly merits, transcending even revered indologists of the time. His mastery of Sanskrit reached such extraordinary heights that Kamlākānta Vidyālaṅkār, a prominent Bengali scholar, bestowed upon him unprecedented praise, elevating him above esteemed figures like William Jones, William Carey, and James Colebrooke. Vidyālaṅkār’s proclamation likened him to the rebirth of Kālidāsa, the revered ancient poet, affirming the unparalleled excellence of his Sanskrit scholarship. Meanwhile, the Śrīkhṛṣṭa-saṃgītā, while serving as a historical testament to the life of Jesus Christ, transcends mere documentation. Rooted in Western interpretations of the Gospels, it stands as a literary masterpiece, blending historical narrative with artistic expression in a manner reminiscent of the belletristic tradition. The research paper discusses the unique attributes of the Śrīkhṛṣṭa-saṃgītā through the lens of Sanskrit Poetics, exploring its historical narrative while elucidating its impact on nineteenth-century Indian society. Through meticulous analysis, it seeks to unravel the interplay between literary artistry and historical accuracy in this seminal work, shedding light on the cultural and intellectual landscape shaped by ‘Church Sanskrit’ literature. By synthesizing scholarly inquiry with linguistic and literary expertise, this paper aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the profound influence of Christian narratives in Sanskrit form on the socio-cultural fabric of colonial India.

Domesticating Disgust: Food, Labor, and Disgust in Colonial India

ABSTRACT This essay demonstrates the centrality of disgust to nineteenth-century Anglo-Indian culture and identity by examining a range of cultural materials, from Anglo-Indian travelogues and cookbooks to household guides and fiction. It shows how disgust shaped the creation of appropriate Anglo-Indian tastes in ways that asserted racial and civilizational supremacy. In imagining their homes as the domain of racial purity as well as the microcosmic representation of empire, Anglo-Indians sought to paradoxically eliminate disgust by depending on its very source—Indian servants. Given the alimentary embeddedness of disgust, this contradiction was particularly pronounced in thinking about culinary regimes and labor. Disgust in domestic cultures of British India, I argue, served three purposes: it identified its object, prescribed its own exclusion, and constituted Anglo-Indian subjecthood. It thus created a fiction of civilizational coherence and stability. Drawing on studies of disgust, nineteenth-century food cultures, and histories of imperial domesticity, this article shows how an affective history of the domestic culinary cultures of British India can yield stark understandings of its racialized material, labor, and gender ideologies.